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I believe the original post was about how we reference individuals, not how we address them.
While avoiding ambiguity is, I think, the final arbiter of how we reference others, I suspect we adopt to what we hear others do. My personal opinion is that we should address others as they wish to be addressed, but refer to people as we perceive the hearer(s) to know the referenced person.
Obviously, in our birth family, we are addressed & referenced by our first names. I don't think that we would think of that as disrespect or unwarranted familiarity. Indeed, if your parent addresses you with your full name, you probably are getting special notice for some reason.
I go by a very unusual name, and my last name was uncommon as I grew up (alas, not so now). (In the 1960s) I recall that in 10th grade a Phys Ed teacher (his specialty was baseball) would address & refer to us by last name, which burned him when he had to announce my name in an awards ceremony. He showed his unfamiliarity with me by garbling it.
Most written records of individuals (in the US at least) key off the last name. As we transition out of the small enclaves of which we are a part as children, we are identified more by written records. I believe this to be one of the reasons why you would be addressed by last name in, say, the Army.
Outside of the Navy, I'm not sure of a purpose for "Mr." except for distinguishing husband & wife when you may be speaking of either. But to my ears, it sounds softer to address someone as "Mr. Smith" than just "Smith". Yet, when referring to them in 3rd person to an unknown hearer, I am more comfortable referring to "Ledecky" or "Phelps" than "Ms. (or Miss) Ledecky" or "Mr. Phelps", while I would probably choose the latter to address them. Yet, on the Cardboard, after establishing the set of people I am talking about, I would not have any concern about using the more familiar name ("Katie" or "Michael").
As I was a swimmer, I am most familiar with how swimmers were referenced since 1960. Whether in TV coverage, in print, at meets, or in conversations, I virtually always heard individuals of each gender referred to by their last names. It was Schollander, not Don; de Varona, not Donna. When addressed, I believe first names (or, rather, the name by which people went, e.g. "Sippy") were always used.
I have a PhD & work with a group that is largely composed of PhDs. In every-day work situations, we never use "Dr." to introduce someone, unless there is a strong reason to (perhaps introducing someone to a customer, or introducing an unknown speaker to a group). Even when transitioning between speakers (male or female) at project-related workshops, we use someone's name, not their title. But that is our field, YMMV.